Fishing about and about fishing
SAFETY IN SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES: WHAT IS TO BE DONE?
(Paper submitted at the 2000 IFISH Conference on behalf of FAO, held at
the Woodshole Insttute of Oceanography, Woodshole, Mass., USA)
ABSTRACT
Marine fishing is the most dangerous of all civilian occupations. Safety in small boats
ranges from unsatisfactory to miserable. Some 15-20 million small-scale and artisanal
fishermen worldwide fish under conditions for which their boats as well as safety,
survival, communication, and first-aid equipment are inadequate, and search-andrescue
(SAR) and early warning services nominal or non-existent. There's general
lack of realistic legislation, enforcement, training of fishermen and trainers, technical
support, prevention and warning systems and professional requirements. Action is
needed on international and national scales aimed at: (1) accident prevention; (2)
reducing human and material casualties of accidents.
Enforceable safety measures must be regulated/legislated with fishing people's
participation. International technical co-operation is needed for training schemes,
manuals publication, design of safer fishing craft, and coastal flood-and-storm
shelters. In some countries, naval and air forces can participate in weather warnings
and SAR activities. Fishery management and insurance schemes should consider
safety-related ramifications, while minimizing/eliminating any incentives for risktaking.
Safety, survival, first aid, and communication equipment should not be taxed,
and safety-related prestige and material prizes should be awarded. Fisherfolk-based
SAR schemes should be encouraged and supported, and rescue tems organized,
trained, and equipped. Beacons should be erected on shore, and anchored at sea, and
fishing boats be equipped with radar reflectors and other collision preventing means.
Boat-beaching facilities should be designed and installed where beaching through surf
is dangerous.
Modes of international co-operation, and ways to adaptation of rules and mandatory
equipment to local socio-economic, cultural, and environmental conditions are
discussed, a plan of action outlined, and technical recommendations provided.
SAFETY IN SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES: WHAT IS TO BE DONE?
(Abridged version)
1. INTRODUCTION
Marine fishing has always been the most dangerous of all civilian occupations (Ben-
Yami, 1998). Fishworkers frequently operate under hostile conditions, often using
imperfect vessels and technology. Small-scale fisheries are particularly vulnerable
(Ben-Yami, 2000; Holliday, 2000).
Casualties are high in countries and areas where small-scale fishworkers operate
under conditions for which their vessels, safety and communication equipment, firstaid,
search-and-rescue (SAR), and early warning services are less than adequate
(Gallene, 1995&1997; Johnson and Tore, 1994; Satia, 1993). These people fish and
collect aquatic organisms by swimming, diving, wading, or using small-scale fishing
craft. Such craft are defined as mainly decked boats of less than 10-12-m length
overall, and less than 12-15 MT displacement, powered by engines not exceeding
200-300 hp (150-225 kW), as well as rafts, canoes, pirogues, and open-deck dhows up
to 16 m length overall, powered by engines not exceeding 200 hp (150 kW) (Ben-
Yami, 1988).
Safety problems of small-scale fisherfolk have been so far receiving low priority even
in many industrial nations, and all but neglected in most of the others (Ben-Yami,
1998, 1999&1999a; Wagner, 1999). Reduction of casualties can be achieved through
concerted action of fisherfolk communities and organizations, national and subnational
authorities, international organizations, and voluntary bodies.
Sections 4 and on of this paper have been severely abridged, some into a form of
headlines. Unabridged version will be made available by FAO/FIIT. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY is pertinent to the latter version.
2. INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVE – PLAN OF ACTION
FAO, ILO, IMO, and WHO are the main inter-governmental bodies professionally
qualified to deal with problems of safety and health of fishworkers on the world scale.
However, FAO's has decades of experience and involvement in the various aspects of
development and management in fishing communities, including boat design and
construction, and fisherfolk's safety. It appears, therefore, that FAO should assume the
leading role in international and inter-governmental activities in small-scale and
artisanal fisheries safety issues, particularly in developing countries. Institutionaladministrative
feasibility represents another reason for centralizing such programme
under the umbrella of a single international organization. Nonetheless, with respect to
some aspects of seamanship, such as certification, and international and national
safety codes, standards, insurance, and legislation, IMO and ILO ought to be
consulted and should extend their assistance (IMO 1998; Wagner, 1999).
Internationally supported programme, sponsored by inter-governmental regional and
worldwide organizations would carry the necessary weight to negotiate with
governments, to deal with political "anti-regulation" pressures, and with official
opposition based on implementation difficulties.
Such international endavour may assume various forms. Here, the following option is
proposed.
2.1 Working Group
FAO would formulate a world programme for safety in small-scale fisheries. A fulltime
Chairman (or a Group Secretary) will be appointed to coordinate a specially
established Working Group. Among its first tasks would be identification of financial
sponsorships, and approach to all governments to carry out surveys of the state of
safety in their small-scale fisheries. In Third World countries, NGOs and FAO field
projects might assist. Since NGOs are playing important roles in many developing
countries, especially where it comes to community-related work, the integrated joint
programme should allow for drawing in NGOs wherever they are willing and able to
help, while those of them that provide substantial input into the programme ought to
be represented on the programme’s Working Group.
An important stage of the programme would be a world-wide convention on safetyat-
sea for small-scale and artisanal fisheries that would provide guidance
and legal background to member countries.
2.2 Survey of warning systems; SAR
The Working Group would review the existing warning systems and SAR services
throughout the world’s small-scale fisheries. FAO has already accumulated some
related information and experience (Gallene, 1995&1997; Houehou, 1993; Johnson
and Toure. 1994). With respect to reviewing warning systems, regional international
co-operation should be encouraged and, if necessary, coordinated by the Working
Group. Regional storm warning systems should be looked at from two points of view:
forecasting and monitoring, and broadcasting. The next step should be to seek,
promote, and support solutions.
2.3 Training in accident prevention, behaviour in emergencies, and survival at
sea.
The Working Group would review the level of training and know-how in areas with
high casualty record, and initiate and promote training activities as those described
below. Again, where governments are unable or unwilling to take proper care of these
aspects, the programme should seek international and NGOs’ support.
3. TWO STRATEGIC OPTIONS
Because the safety situation in small-scale fisheries worldwide is so bad, even modest
improvements would result in substantial reduction of the casualties’ rate. Two basic
strategies are possible: (1) accident prevention; (2) reducing human and material
casualties resulting of accidents. Depending on specific, local condition, both
strategies can be applied separately, consecutively, or simultaneously.
The first strategy encompasses improvements in boats' design and construction,
particularly stability, weather warning systems, storm shelters for vulnerable coastal
populations, and compulsory training and licensing of skippers and crews in safety of
both, navigation and on-board procedures. Additional aspects consist in integrating
safety issues in fishery management and eco-labelling schemes, reduction and, where
feasible, reduction and elimination of financial and fishery management-induced
incentives to take risks, as well as in legislation and insurance that stipulate safety
measures.
The second strategy involves SAR, safety, first aid, and survival equipment on board,
emergency communication and tele-location systems and skipper and crew knowhow
and performance in emergencies, and the related training.
4. PREVENTION AND TRAINING
4.1 Reduction of incentives to take risks
4.1.1 In managed fisheries
(i) Set the days for short-opening fisheries as to avoid days of particularly bad
weather.
(ii) Cut out periods of bad weather when applying seasonal or other short
closures. (iii) Apply mandatory closures at times of bad weather for fisheries
supported by boats of comparable seaworthiness.
(iv) Introduce mandatory insurance stipulating seaworthiness tests and
equipment inspections as a condition for the allocation of fishing licenses,
quotas, and other fishing rights.
4.1.2 Legislation
(i) Safety-at-sea associated laws and rules should deal with mandatory
equipment made by law tax and duty-free, seaworthiness of fishing craft, crew
and skipper certification, and inspections.
(ii) Promote legislation and enforcement of rules preventing inhuman and
unjust treatment of artisanal crews employed with their craft by "motherships".
(iii) See 4.1.1 (iv), above.
4.2. Training and certification
4.2.1 Certification
Fisherman in charge of fishing craft carrying at least one additional crewmember
should be certified.
Initially, experienced “old-hands” can be excepted. Syllabi for certificates should fit
local conditions, sort and size of boat, range, and educational level, and comprise
local navigational methods, the rule of the road, basic first-aid knowledge, and
behaviour in and management of emergencies.
4.2.2 Training and publications
Training courses, crash-courses, workshops, seminars, etc. in 2 main categories:
1 – training of trainers and educators;
2 – training of fisherfolk.
Educational efforts may be needed where, e.g., fisherfolk do not trust modern
weather forecasting. Governments should be encouraged to organize courses and
workshops, and where needed, itinerant training units, (Ben-Yami, 1999; McCoy,
1991).
4.2.2.1 Training trainers
Training trainers, themselves desirably experienced seamen or fishermen, especially
for training in survival, and emergency management, and use of safety equipment.
Other training activities in this category:
(i) extension workers for voluntary SAR groups;
(ii) first-aid paramedics;
(iii) mechanics-instructors;
(iii) boat building instructors;
(iv) instructors in emergency use of sails
(v) train staff of first-aid units to recognize symptoms of decompression sickness,
and realize the must of speedy transportation of the casualty to a re-compression
chamber (Berkow et al, 1997).
Training programmes should involve teaching behaviour in and management of
marine accidents involving stability, overloading, and "top-heavy" situations,
including capsizals, handling of holes and leakages. Training, education, and
examinations (Rayment and Fossi, 1994), should cover survival at sea, handling
boats in currents, rough weather, tall waves, surf, over shallows, and in presence of
water spouts, "man overboard" and "abandon ship" routines, grounding of a boat ,
and ways to refloat it before major damage occurs, as well as Rule of the Road and
recognition and avoidance of collision course, and precautionary behaviour and
procedures on board in worsening weather (Gulbrandsen, 1998). Training and even
certification of SCUBA divers is another critical issue.
4.2.2.2 Training fishworkers
Curricula should be prepared, and instructors selected according to specific, local
needs. These would include:
(i)"abandon ship" practice;
(ii) rapid donning of immersion suits;
(iii) first aid, including recognizing symptoms of, and dealing with hypothermia;
(iv) survival in water in the presence of sharks.
4.2.2.3. Publications
(i)Produce easy-to-use, waterproof and small-size maps charting dangerous
spots and areas, and safe routes.
(ii) Prepare popular, well-illustrated “Pop”-style and pocket guides/manuals on
accidents prevention and safety at sea for artisanal fisheries, translated into
relevant languages and distributed to governments and programmes dealing
with safety at sea. (FAO/ILO/IMO, 1988; Gulbrandsen and Pajot, 1993; Marine
Safety Agency et al., 2000; Safety Committee, 1972; Safety Liaison Working
Group, 1997). Guidance how to react to accidents and management of
emergencies should be included in new or reprinted manuals.
(iii) produce or reproduce and distribute a series of guides aimed at boatbuilders
without formal training in the construction of seaworthy and reliable smallscale
fishing craft. (Coackley, 1991; Fyson, 1980, 1985; Mutton, 1982;
Gulbrandsen, 1992; Gulbrandsen and Pajot, 1993; IMCO, 1976 a&b; Reinhart,
1975; Riley and Turner, 1995; J.Turner; K.Codel, priv.comm.).
4.3 Boat design and construction.
International design and construction standards for small-scale fishing craft
A team of experts will identify and formulate of international and regional standards
for small-scale fishing craft design and construction that can be used as a basis for
regulation and enforcement. The standards must fit fishing, environmental, socioeconomic
and cultural conditions, as well as general technological level and
infrastructure in different parts of the world, and recommend existing and new
designs, which would be safer, andprovide better working and living conditions on
board, more efficient fishing operation, including fuel economy.
4.3.1 Artisanal boats
Improvements can be introduced to traditional craft while maintaining its
character, such, as (Ben-Yami, 1999; Gulbrandsen, 1992):
(i) buoyancy on capsizal or flooding;
(ii) possibility to right the boat up by swimming crew;
(I) plastic-foam buoyancy blocks fitted in appropriate spaces;
(ii)small improvements, such as, e.g., use of bolts, instead of nails, and other
materials, and use of better tools;
(iii) improvements of watertight integrity, freeboard, stability, performance in
waves and in surf, etc.
4.3.2 Stability
The special conditions of operation of fishing vessels, especially, double-rigged
trawling boats and small-scale purse seiners require special consideration of
stability, due to external pulls. (Coackley, 1991; Fyson, 1980, 1985; Gulbrandsen
and Pajot, 1993; Mutton, 1982; Riley and Turner, 1995).
Where necessary, provide "weak-link" elements in the rigging or the fishing gear
that would break off when pulls raise to dangerous levels (Ben-Yami, 1999).
4.4 Stings, venoms, and poisons
Fishing people are prone to painful and even fatal injuries by venomous and
poisonous marine animals. The Working Group should promote:
(i) improving the availability of antivenoms and related medicines to fisherfolk,
especially in Third World fisheries;
(ii) research and development of antivenoms and immunization against
venoms, and poisons such as ciguatera, and of simple ciguatera
presence tests (Berkow et al., 1997; Williamson et al., 1996).
4.5 Weather warnings
The Working Group will promote re-orientation of weather warning systems to serve
small-scale fisheries.
4.5.1 Delivery of warnings: radio
(i) Promote obligating public and private radio stations, in areas prone to major
storms and sudden weather changes, to transmit weather warnings as soon as
received, without waiting for the regular weather forecast. Such procedure, where
necessary, should be made compulsory by law.
(ii) require all sea-going, even artisanal fishermen, to carry radio receivers able to
receive such weather broadcasts. (Anon. 1996, Calvert, 1998).
4.5.2 Delivery of warnings: military forces
Promote the use of military aircraft to alert fisherfolk at sea, on land close to
shore, and on the beaches, on approach of dangerous weather.
4.6 Fire prevention
The Working Group should promote relevant regulation, including, e.g.:
(i)small craft powered by petrol-driven outboard motors should carry all their fuel in
extra original outboard-motor fuel tanks;
(ii) small open boats to carry a bucket, and some sand in a container.
(iii) larger, decked small-scale fishing vessels must be designed with special
consideration of water pumping systems, galleys, engine room and casing, and
exhaust pipes, to minimize the risk of fire.
4.7 Preventing collisions
(i) all boats should carry simple radar reflectors and expose light during nighttime;
(ii) notwithstanding any electronics, a person must be on lookout whenever the
boat is in motion;
(iii) give emphasis to good knowledge of "Rule of the Road" and discerning
collision course.
4.8 Preventing beaching accidents
(i) promote locally appropriate beaching installations and services;
(ii) promote erection on land and anchoring at sea of beacons, light and other
beacons.
4.9 On the beach: disaster preparedness; evacuation and protection
Where groups of fisherfolk are engaged in beach fishing activities, promote
introduction of visual warning means, including flags hoisting, smoke signals,
pyrotechnics etc., and warning from the air, and carrying radio transistors.
where hurricane-force winds destroy dwellings and carry in their wake torrential rains
and floods, promote construction of safe storm refuges, such as, for example, well
constructed (e.g., reinforced concrete) houses, especially, schools, houses of worship,
community centres, etc., with where necessary, raised flooring. One possibility is to
construct low-cost community "survival platforms". These may consist of a concrete,
well fenced floor set on a sufficient number of concrete pillars tall enough to keep the
platform above any possible flood, with a minimum carrying strength of at least 300-
400 kg/sq.m, and wide gangways and stairs. Such structures can save large numbers
of people and, even, animals, while requiring minimum maintenance. (Ben-Yami,
1999; J.Turner, priv.comm.).
5. MANAGEMENT OF ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES AT SEA
The existing guides and manuals do not adequately deal with many of the issues
concerned, particularly when accidents associated with fishing operations are
concerned. Some examples follow.
5.1 Survival and fire fighting equipment
(i) All fishing craft designed to remain buoyant upon capsizal should be fitted with
handropes or other means by which people in water can hold to with ease, and
right the craft up.
(i) every boat should carry: hooks and line for emergency fishing, some sort of
signal pyrotechnics, desirably parachute flares, a transistor radio receiver, an
electric torch with spare batteries, where feasible - a cellular telephone, a
buoyant waterproof container for the above, lifejackets fitted with reflective
tapes or active lighting system for all persons on board, a basic first-aid set,
buoyant emergency water containers, anchor and anchor rope, a bucket or two.
(ii) All small boats should carry paddles or oars, a mast and sail, and a lamp.
(iii) magnetic compass should be carried in all boats fishing at a distance exceeding
1-2 NM offshore (Gulbrandsen, 1992&1998; Gulbrandsen and Pajot, 1993).
(iv) Decked small-scale vessels larger than 7-8 m length should be equipped with
standard navigation lights, hand and mechanical bilge pumps, fire
extinguishers, and carry additional equipment, such as a small liferaft (if boat
not buoyant), light and smoke signals, etc., a light-buoy with radar reflector.
(v) EPIRB buoys are desirable and, where economically feasible, obligatory
(vi) in cold water areas, personal survival suits.
5.2 Emergencies
5.2.1 Survival in water.
All survival equipment should be well stowed and maintained and in case of
sinking, easily or self-detachable and stay afloat. All boats should carry sufficient
number of life jackets, and if necessary, assisted in their acquisition and
distribution.
5.2.3 During fishing operations
Injuries are caused from contact with winches and line and net-haulers, running
gear (cables, wires, nets, and longlines being set and hauled), fish hooks, and
heavy weights overhead, as well as with thrashing and dead fish.
(i) Keep first aid at hand at any time;
(ii) discontinue fishing ceased when external medical assistance is urgently
needed;
(iii) keep sharp knife, axe, and/or other cutting devices ready where a person may
get caught by running lines, ropes, or cables.
5.2.4 Diving and otherwise fishing in water
(i) Provide emergency re-compression chambers where large number of fishing
people is employed in commercial SCUBA diving;
(ii) ban SCUBA fishing in deep water where safety means are insufficient.
5.2.5 Bad weather
Sudden gales, major storms and heavy fog frequently cause small boat capsizals,
grounding, losing way, and collisions, as well as casualties. Successful weathering
of a storm requires thorough preparation of the boat, first, in the harbour, and again
when the weather starts to deteriorate. See that the deck is tight, all hatches shut
and secured, and all weights, containers, and fishing and other equipment safely
lashed down. Stretch manropes where people must move, e.g., between forecastle,
engine hatch, and the wheelhouse.
Rules useful especially for decked boats in the 8-12-m l.o.a. range, follow.
- Follow stability rules;
- Don't overload with excessive equipment or catch;
- Mind stability when making changes to your vessel or equipment;
- Make sure all hatches, weatherdeck and watertight openings are in good
condition with gaskets;
- Keep bilges free of excess water;
- Frequently check all void spaces for water;
- Ensure that bilge-pumping system is operational (U.S.Coast Guard guidance).
To maintain boat's bow into the weather, keep on board sea-anchor (can be replaced
by wise use of fishing gear, especially, trawls), and a small gaff sail (trysail) that can
be set over the boat's stern.
5.2.6 Injuries inflicted by stingy, venomous, and poisonous marine animals
(i) provide mobile first-aid units, where wading, swimming, and diving fishing
activities are frequent. (Berkow et al., 1997; Williamson et al., 1996.).
(ii) promote regulations and recommendations related to minimum first-aid means
and drugs against venoms and poisoning to be carried by such units and on board
small fishing craft.
5.3 Search-and-Rescue (SAR) services and small-scale fisheries
Wherever necessary, the Working Group would promote strengthening or
establishment of SAR services.
5.3.1 SAR - State of the art
Most if not all coastal industrial countries have SAR services. In such
countries, small-scale fisheries should reach the level of training and equipment
comparable to that practiced in the larger-scale fishing fleets, as, for example,
introduction of real time vessel monitoring system (VMS), automatic
emergency and position calls from vessels in danger, and wider use of EPIRB.
Three basic types of SAR services are relevant to small-scale fisheries:
a - civilian-voluntary; b - state-run: naval, air force, coast guard, and police;
c - community self-help SAR groups.
Fishworkers in trouble are mostly found and rescued by their fellows. Therefore,
visual or other contact among small fishing boats is important.
5.3.2 Fisherfolk sea and storm safety action groups
In most Third World countries, SAR services of any kind are less effective, if in
existence at all.
Where governments are not effective, the way to go is to identify local, including
traditional institutions and leadership, and help them to organize their own SAR
and other related activities. They may construct and install simple radar reflectors
on canoes and sailing rafts, and/or equip them with radar-reflector buoys, beacons
marking dangerous reefs and rocks, lights or fires on beaches and at shelter entries
to mark night passage of fishing craft through surf or narrow passages,beacons, if
necessary in pairs, to mark safe access course, install and operate beaching
installations, etc. Local groups can also handle simple weather-warning systems,
such as using mosques' loud speakers, hoisting warning flags, generating smoke
signals, etc., to alert the fisherfolk working inshore.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author’s thanks are extended to FAO’s Fishery Industry Division for sponsoring the
preparation and presentation of this paper at the IFISH Conference, and to ILO for
sponsoring my working paper “Risk and Dangers in Small-Scale Fisheries – an
Overview”, wherefrom most of the ideas and suggestions in the present paper have
been taken. Special thanks are due to “World Fishing” monthly, “Samudra” quarterly,
and “Fishfolk” internet discussion list for enabling me again and again to plead the
cause and voice the plight of small-scale fishing folk.
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Concluding remarks by MB-Y
It was a great meeting. Great amounts of fisheries related safety information and
research results were exchanged. We shall hope that the lessons drawn and
recommendations made here find their ways to the hearts and minds of all those whose
decisions, leadership, performance and behaviour, may save lives. But let's not forget
that we dealt here mostly with fisheries of industrially advanced countries, where even
the small scale fishermen have access to an array of safety arrangements and
equipment, not to speak of such well-organized, well-equipped, and experienced SAR
services, like the excellent U.S. Coast Guard.
This having been said, as participants in an international conference we cannot fail to
remember the predicament of small-scale fisheries worldwide, which while supplying
most of the world's foodfish, bear the greatest share of the painful price. And we won't
fail to remember that where the bulk of those fisheries operate little has ever been
done about fishing people's health and safety.
Let's have the next international safety conference soon, and let's hope that a sponsor
will come forwards who would contribute the funds necessary to attract a wider
representation of activists in particular from countries where hundreds of thousands
and millions of people fishing in small boats, daily and nightly put their lives and
health at risk. Let's hope that such conferences would be followed up by a concerted
international activity aiming at saving lives of fishing people and their boats all over
the world.
As accidents, conferences don't just happen. Conferences have to be organized. So
let's all thank Ann Backus, Jennifer Lincoln, and George Convey, as well to all others
who've been involved in the planning and execution of this meeting, for the excellent
organization and hospitality. May your efforts result in saving lives and boats.